In all the hustle and bustle of planning foreign travel, it is easy to forget that a good map can be just as useful as a guidebook. Under some circumstances, one may even help to get you out of serious trouble. Maps are also an extremely concentrated source of information, one that can be inexpensive and light to carry. However, perhaps the most important point to make about maps is that, with a little application, they can take you far beyond your guidebook or even local knowledge in pursuit of the unknown and undiscovered.

Having said that, one reason that people often do not buy maps is that they are unsure of how to select and use them. I hope that the following comments will help those who have no previous knowledge to feel confident enough to select the right map and make good use of it. Finally, the serious international traveller should recognise the value of mapping as an aid to advanced planning and that, where possible, maps should be bought in advance because local sources can be both surprisingly difficult to locate and unreliable.

The components of a map

The purpose of a map is to provide information about the area covered so that the user can either locate any feature shown or visualise what it would be like to be there, allowing journeys to be planned or imagined. This information is captured in two ways: through the use of a quoted scale and by employing standard symbols to represent commonly occurring features.

The scale of the map is an indication of how much detail the map contains. Large- scale maps have the most detail while smaller-scale maps contain less detail but usually show a wider area, giving a more general picture of the land. The biggest source of confusion with scale arises because the maps referred to as small scale have the highest numbers, i.e. 1:7,500,000. To find out which scale is right for you, please read the section on choice of scale.

The symbols on the map also need a little explaining as they are, in effect, the cartographer's shorthand. This shorthand can be 'decoded' by the use of the map key, which tabulates all the feature codes and tells you what each one represents. It is also important to realise that while the location of any feature is accurately portrayed, the ideogram used to represent it is purely diagrammatic and not to scale. As an example, roads on motoring maps appear to be far wider than they really are for the sake of maximum clarity and to allow junctions and other features to be usefully displayed.

One other consideration regarding both the scale of the map and the symbols used is that there is inevitably a degree of selection when it comes to the information portrayed, otherwise the map would become completely cluttered and consequently unreadable. In practice, this means that some features will be omitted from the map, something to consider when selecting one. The decision about what is shown on any given map or series of maps is determined by the cartographer and publisher, and is often as much a matter of the tradition and style of that particular company as it is of general convention.

Choice of scale

If we now move on to some specific map scales, we can quickly build up an idea of the sorts of map to use for a given purpose. Most national surveys were originally based on the scale of 1:50,000, and the British ordnance survey was no exception. At this scale it is obvious that a series of maps is needed to cover an area the size of Britain, and so a grid is used to relate map sheets of equal size to the areas that they cover and to each other. Such grids can be referred to at the map shop or are sometimes available to take away so that you can work on your requirement at home. The 1:50,000 scale is ideal for cycling and slow, detailed motoring within a limited area. It can also be used by walkers, although it is not really ideal. At this scale you will see all the towns, villages and hamlets in a given area, together with all the roads, tracks, lanes and rights of way. Other features will depend on the style and type of mapping. For walking purposes, a map scale of 1:25,000 is ideal, as it allows you to see all the landmarks and features of the area in more detail, right down to field boundaries in some cases. When we move into the urban environment, where the number and density of features is very high, scales of 1:10,000, 1:15,000 and 1:20,000 are frequently used and these allow you to see individual street names and specific building locations. At the other end of the spectrum, map scales of 1:100,000 and 1:250,000 or even 1:500,000 are regularly used for long-distance motoring and regional touring, where the emphasis is on relating one major feature or area to another.

Having established the uses of scale and the importance of symbols on a given map, it is helpful to look at the types of map that are generally available so that other criteria for selection can be established.

Types of map

For the purposes of the traveller, most maps will be either topographic or thematic, or possibly a combination of the two. Topographic maps show the general nature of the country: physical features, type of terrain, location of watercourses, forests, marshes, foreshore features and all roads, railways and other lines of communication, as well as any other significant features, be they man-made or natural. In general, this type of mapping will have contours (lines connecting points of equal elevation) to indicate the physical relief and, as such, tends to be an ordnance survey type of map.

Thematic maps can be very different. The most common types a traveller will encounter are tourist and trekking maps. Tourist maps tend to suppress and simplify a lot of the geographical features and show only main roads or established walks and the main points of interest to tourists, such as viewing points, guest- houses and picnic spots, museums or beaches, at the expense of comprehensive road layouts, minor villages and physical relief. Trekking maps show the route of a trek overlaid on a landscape that has been simplified to show only the recognisable features for the trekker, such as ridges, rivers, rocks and settlements. As trekking routes are often well established, such maps are usually enough to stop you getting lost. However, if you are venturing off the beaten 'trek', you would be advised to take a more detailed survey map with you, if you can get one.

Having decided on the best scale and the kind of features you want the map to show, you are now ready to compare your criteria with what is available.

Choosing a map

While there is no doubt that many maps are sold each year purely on the basis of their appearance, there are a number of other points that should be given priority.

First and foremost, a map is a graphic representation of information, so it is important to establish how accurate that information might be. This can be established in a number of ways, but it is fair to say that the publication date is one of the most useful indicators because, assuming that an area continues to develop, the older the map the more current information will be missing. Again, as an indicator, this rule need not be taken to extremes as some elements of the map, such as relief, only change very slowly and so, if your primary purpose is walking, such consideration might not be so critical. In urban and semi-urban areas, rates of change to road networks and buildings can be extremely fast, so here you need to be much more critical. Needless to say, most map producers are sensitive to such relative rates of change and will revise their urban mapping much more frequently than their rural and wilderness coverage.

It is also a great mistake to assume that levels of mapping and rates of updating are equal the world over. This is not the case, and so you may have to accept the best available, which could date back some 40 years in some cases. Likewise with scale: by no means all areas of the world are mapped at 1:50,000, so you may be forced to accept a smaller scale than you would otherwise choose. The important underlying factor is to find a source for your map purchase that offers reliable advice and can explain all the current options.

Unfortunately it is not possible to detail all the main map producers throughout the world and give an appraisal of their relative merits, but we can provide a general overview by area, and highlight the sorts of problems you may encounter in trying to obtain maps.

Worldwide

There are some topographic map series that cover the whole world. Air navigation charts are available at scales of either 1:1,000,000 or 1:500,000. Although this does not immediately sound impressive, in some cases - and places - these are the best maps available and should be borne in mind if all else fails. If you require more detail and have more patience, Russian military survey maps can be obtained, usually at a scale of 1:200,000, but sometimes at 1:100,000, or even 1:50,000; urban areas are usually mapped at 1:10,000. They are all in Russian, and supply can be patchy, so they usually have to be ordered, but as with the air navigation charts, if normal commercial maps are unavailable these may be your only option.

Europe

For general travel and route planning, it is hard to beat the maps produced by Michelin, Geocenter, Freytag & Berndt, Kummerley & Frey, Cartographia and Collins. These publishers also produce good street mapping of the major towns and cities, for less important towns please refer to the country text. For want of a better way of listing the more detailed maps I shall start in the west and work along the Mediterranean coast to Turkey and then start northwards.

In Portugal, the main source of large-scale mapping is the Instituto Geografico e Cadastral, which produce maps at 1:50,000 and 1:100,000; some military maps are also available at 1:25,000. Detailed road and tourist mapping for the Algarve is available from a range of different publishers.

For the popular walking areas of mainland Spain, such as the Picos de Europa and the Sierra Nevada, excellent commercial maps are available from Editorial Alpina and also Miguel Adrados. Contoured walking maps for some of the Canary and Balearic islands are available from Freytag & Berndt. Tourist maps for the popular coastal regions are easy to get hold of. IGN Spain publishes a provincial series of maps at 1:200,000. These offer a good combination of topographic and road detail and are popular with cyclists looking to combine maximum detail with a small number of maps. If you are travelling to Barcelona or the Catalan end of the Pyrenees, Survey of Catalunya produces a superb series of 1:50,000 maps for the whole province. For all other areas of Spain, military maps at 1:50,000, 1:100,000 and sometimes 1:25,000 are available. Town plans are available from Distimapas Telstar.

France is extremely well provided for by its national survey, IGN France, which produces maps at 1:25,000, 1:100,000 and 1:250,000 (but no longer 1:50,000), plus many special sheets. Of particular interest to mountain walkers are the IGN France Top 25 series, the Didier et Richard series and Edition Randonnées Pyrenées. Town plans are available from Blay Foldex, Serie Bleau and IGN France.

Italy presents problems for the map user as its national survey is in a rather sorry state and, while supply is possible, many sheets remain unpublished. Consequently you will have to rely on the commercially produced maps. All the popular walking and tourist areas are well covered by such publishers as IGC, Tabacco, Edizioni Multigraphic or Kompass. But when it comes to off-the-beaten-track destinations, detailed map coverage is poor. TCI (Touring Club Italiano), the Italian equivalent of the AA, and the Instituto Geografico De Agostini both publish excellent road maps of the whole country at 1:200,000. These may be the best large-scale maps available. Town plans are available from TCI and FMB.

Freytag & Berndt publishes the best detailed maps of the Dalmatian coast and Croatia at a scale of 1:100,000. Coverage for the rest of the Balkans is understandably very bad, with the best maps available being Russian survey maps (see above). A map of Kosovo, however, is available at 1:250,000.

Greece used to be a dreadful country for which to find large-scale maps. Now a company called Road Editions produces many maps of the popular walking regions and the islands. The series varies in quality, but usually the maps offer good contour information, trekking and ski routes and up-to-date road detail. Good tourist maps of the islands are also produced by Toubi. And Harms Verlag produces 1:100,000 contoured maps of Crete.

Finding maps for Turkey can be difficult. The largest-scale mapping that is easily available, as a consistent series, comes from Ryborsch, at a scale of 1:500,000. The popular coastal areas, however, are covered by a selection of maps from Turkish and non-Turkish publishers. For more detailed mapping of the inland and non-tourist areas, Russian survey maps have to be used (see above).

The best maps of Switzerland come from the Swiss national survey, and are generally considered to be exemplary in terms of the accuracy and clarity of their mapping. Produced at the scales of 1:100,000, 1:50,000 and 1:25,000, the maps are a joy to use. Special editions are available with ski routes and walking trails. A good series of street maps is published by Orell Fussli.

Austria's national survey is a reliable source of mapping, but excellent coverage of walking and skiing areas is also given by Kompass, Freytag & Berndt and Alpenvereinskarte. Germany is more complicated as each state has its own mapping department. These usually produce good maps and the Baden-Wurttemberg survey of the Black Forest is particularly popular. German publisher ADAC probably supplies the most detailed street plans and has the most comprehensive list of titles.

The Benelux countries are well covered by their national surveys at 1:25,000 and 1:50,000, and there are also some very detailed road atlases available. Good cycling maps for the Netherlands are produced by Dutch publisher ANWB at 1:50,000. It also produces an excellent series of road maps at 1:100,000.

Moving east, the popular areas of the Czech and Slovak Republics are well mapped by local companies and the resulting maps are easily available from the specialist map store. Poland is also well mapped by both its national survey and various commercial publishers.

In the far north, the Scandinavian countries all have their own national surveys, which produce high-quality topographical mapping at the standard scale of 1:50,000. As well as the standard maps, many popular areas are covered by special sheets or sets that offer excellent value for money.

North America

Survey mapping is available for the United States and Alaska, however it is not of the highest quality. Perhaps this is understandable, considering the vast area covered. Scales range from 1:25,000 up to 1:500,000, and a number of special sheets are also produced for the more popular areas. Help is at hand, however, if you are travelling to any of the National park areas in the form of the excellent NGS/Trails Illustrated maps. Printed on waterproof, tear- resistant paper and based on USGS mapping, they are aimed specifically at the backpacker and explorer. Walkers in California should look out for the Tom Harrison series of maps, as these provide excellent detail. Detailed topographic atlases are available for each of the American states, courtesy of Delorme. Good regional and state road mapping is available from companies such as Rand McNally and Berndston & Berndston.

Canada has the Canadian National Survey. This is the main source of detailed information, and is readily available at scales of 1:250,000 and 1:50,000. Special sheets with tourist information are produced for some of the National Parks. General motoring coverage and town plans are available from Allmaps and Mapart.

Central America, Mexico and the Caribbean

Survey information for this group of countries is hard to obtain, but the patient purchaser should be able to obtain mapping for the majority of popular destinations. Good general maps come from ITMB. Mapping for Belize at 1:50,000 is available from the Ordnance Survey International (formerly the Directorate of Overseas Survey). In Mexico, local cartographer Guia Roji produced good road maps of the individual states, and some survey maps can be ordered. Of the remaining countries, survey mapping is available for Costa Rica and Panama, but not so readily elsewhere. There are many high-quality general maps, however. The Caribbean islands are well provided for by IGN France, which produces some excellent detailed maps that are scaled for walking and general use.

South America

Topographic maps for many South American countries can be ordered from their respective survey organisations, although you should be wary - many of these will be very out of date. You should also remember to plan in advance, as ordering can take months. A variety of commercial maps covering most of South America's popular trekking destinations, such as the Inca trail, the mountains of Peru and Bolivia and Aconcagua in Argentina, are produced by such organisations as the South American Explorers Club. Street mapping of major cities is available from a variety of local sources and is usually available by order from specialist shops.

Africa

The African continent presents many problems to the traveller wishing to buy maps, and it is useful to know something of the colonial history of the countries you are visiting when you set out to locate survey information. In general, some ex-British colonies will still have mapping available from the Ordnance Survey International (formerly the Directorate of Overseas Survey). Ex-French colonies are covered by IGN France, and sometimes this can be the only mapping available, although often at no more detailed a scale then 1:1,000,000. Some African countries have their own surveys, and these include Algeria, Ghana, Gambia, Madagascar, Malawi and Namibia, but supply is generally very poor and you should be prepared for a long wait. South Africa has an excellent survey department, which produces maps of high quality. Many national parks, such as the Drakensberg National park, are mapped by commercial publishers to a very high standard. The rest of Africa is more of a problem, and availability will vary with the current political climate. In the end, you may have to rely on either general road maps, air navigation charts or the Russian military survey.

Middle East

In most Middle Eastern countries, survey mapping is restricted. At present, Israel is the only country selling maps to the general public. An excellent series of general maps that covers much of the Middle East is produced by GeoProjects. If more detail is required, you will have to rely on air navigation charts or the Russian military survey.

Indian subcontinent

Despite an immense amount of travel interest in India and its neighbours, there is very little in the way of detailed mapping available to the general public. As a result, a number of publishers have produced very good maps for the walking and trekking areas of northern India, Pakistan and Nepal. Nepal is very well covered, with a survey of its own that covers most of the popular areas and Nelles (Schneider) produces a wonderful series of contoured maps covering east and central Nepal. Two other companies, Mandala and the Himalayan Map House, also produce trekking maps for Nepal. Some specific sheets are available for Everest and its national park, notably from the National Geographic Society. Outside of Nepal, Leomann produces a series of sketched trekking maps that cover virtually all the accessible parts of the Indian Himalaya and the Karakoram. A good series of locally produced regional, state and city maps for India are available from TT Maps. Nelles produces an excellent regional relief mapping of the whole of India and Pakistan. Finally, a reprint of the AMS/U502 series at 1:250,000 is available only from Stanfords Map and Travel Bookshop, and these, combined with air navigation charts, should more than adequately fill in any gaps.

China, Japan and Korea and South-East Asia

Excellent survey mapping is available for Japan, but the text is in Japanese and it can be time-consuming and expensive to obtain. The only survey maps of China or Korea that are available are Russian survey maps and they are available at various scales. Nelles produces some good maps of the different regions of China and individual province and city maps are available, but often only with Chinese or Korean text. A series of basic topographic maps for Tibet is available.

The vast area of South-East Asia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and the Pacific Islands again poses many problems to the traveller who wishes to purchase accurate, detailed mapping, but there are a few notable exceptions. Survey mapping in Thailand, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea is generally available, although, again, you may have to wait some time for delivery and coverage may not yet be complete. Nelles and a company called Periplus produce good general maps, which often provide detailed insets of popular areas.

Australia and New Zealand

Excellent survey mapping is available for Australia and New Zealand and there is a good selection of commercial mapping, too. The only problem with Australia is identifying the maps you require from the vast grids that cover the country. Australian publisher UBD produces good state and regional maps and a range of town atlases is produced by UBD and Gregory's. New Zealand survey maps are published under the brand name Infomap and these range from walking scale up to route-planning scale maps of the whole country.

In conclusion

As a final plea. please remember that no shop, however large, could possibly hold stock of all maps that are currently available; so if you are venturing off into the unknown and you need to rely on maps, please make sure that you order them well in advance. Some foreign survey departments can take between six months to two years to respond, so give your retailer as much notice as possible - otherwise you may be disappointed.