It is no wonder that the vastness of Africa's landmass, unknown and untamed, should have presented the ultimate challenge to Europeans for centuries. Africa is a huge and incredibly diverse continent stretching from the Mediterranean to the southern oceans - the eastern 'horn' jutting into the Arabian Sea to the Atlantic coast of Senegal. Its size was fully realised only by seafaring explorers who began charting the coastlines during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It contains the world's largest desert and its longest river, but this represents only a part of Africa's statistics. So much about it remains unknown, yet the Great Rift Valley contains evidence of the birthplace of mankind. Tales of the expeditions undertaken by Livingstone, Burton and Speke (amongst many others) still inspire many to take on Africa's challenge. There is never a dull moment in Africa - it is forever changing. Politically it is often in turmoil, but it is a big place and the regions/countries affected normally only represent a small proportion of the continent. But travellers should be informed and definitely open-minded - any day can throw up unpredictable events that have no equivalent in any other part of the world. A journey through even a part of Africa will probably represent the major travel experience of a lifetime.

Up-to-date medical advice should be sought before departure because of the ever- present health risks in Africa. Malaria is now on the increase, particularly in sub- Saharan and West Africa. And HIV has become a major hazard throughout Africa (see chapter on Sex Abroad).

Crossing the Sahara to Central Africa

Hardly a year goes by without some part of Africa being categorised as a 'no-go' region. The Sahara is no exception, and quite apart from its usual challenges - extremes of heat, lack of roads, closed frontiers - it is now the Sahara's own internal unrest that stands in the way of travellers. The established and rather traditional route followed over the past 2530 years now carries much greater risks.

In the past (and it is to be hoped that these options will soon return), journeys either started from Morocco, crossing the Atlas Mountains into Algeria, or alternatively began by sailing from Italy and entering at Tunis. Either route takes you south on the 'Trans Sahara Highway' to the oasis towns of Ghardaia, El Golea, In Salah and finally Tamanrasset, at the foot of the mighty Hoggar Massif. More adventurous overlanders, with well-equipped 4x4 vehicles and ample supplies of fuel and water, opted for the dramatic and somewhat tortuous route east via the Tassili plateau and the extraordinary rock formations around Djanet. Discovered in the caves here are 3,000-year-old rock inscriptions, records of life in the Sahara before the expanding sands engulfed much of its vegetation. Desert tracks marked occasionally by oil drums then lead south to Tamanrasset and the ever-elusive 'Highway'. The Sahara has its own way of dealing with development - no sooner do the Algerian and Niger governments lay a few more kilometres of bitumen than along comes a typical desert 'flash flood', sometimes destroying years of work in just a few hours.

A less popular but more practical alternative, again requiring a suitable vehicle (carrying long-range fuel and water supplies), was to travel due south from Bechar to Reggane, before following the Tanzerouft route in Mali. Either way, the present political unrest and rise of Islamic fundamentalism in Algeria renders the country unsafe and these routes largely non-viable. Regrettably this has followed a long period of unrest in the south of the Sahara, on the frontier lands of Algeria, Niger and Mali. During the early- to mid-Nineties, unruly factions of Tuareg, seeking autonomy, set about attacking and robbing any vehicle entering the region, with isolated reports of shootings. Alternative routes had to be found. Crossing Libya into Chad is still really out of the question, so all attention was focused on a route through the former Spanish Sahara (now administered by Morocco) into Mauritania. However, while overlanders have obtained permits from the Moroccan authorities, the Mauritanian government has never really acknowledged this and permission to enter from Morocco is often refused - though this situation now seems to be improving and there is talk of 'legal' northbound crossings.

Still, with careful preparation it can be done - so you are strongly advised to investigate this route thoroughly first. While many travellers still attempt and succeed in crossing Africa without a 4x4, it is still the wisest means of travel, particularly as this alternative route certainly presents some tough days of soft sand in northern Mauritania. It is all the more necessary if you are considering exploring the remoter areas of Mali, Niger and Chad.

Visas are required to enter Mauritania, and you are advised to obtain these in Europe (Bonn, Paris or Madrid). It is reported that they are also obtainable in Rabat, Morocco - but this is possibly leaving it too late should they be refused. It is also best to obtain visas for Mali while in Europe, thus avoiding the risk of not being able to obtain them before leaving Mauritania. Most other visas can be obtained en route in neighbouring countries.

Your route through Morocco should certainly take in the imperial city of Fes, renowned for its huge walled Medina. Then crossing the High Atlas to Todra Gorge and the edge of the Grand Erg Occidentale, with its 'sea of sand dunes'. Marrakech still retains its mystic aura, and is your last 'semi-civilised' centre before heading south to the coastal sands of the Western Sahara. Following the Atlantic coast via Layounne you arrive in Dakhla, the formal exit point from Morocco. Here at least a day of tedious paperwork and form-filling will enable you to join a twice-weekly 'convoy' south to the frontier post at La Gouria. A short but tricky desert crossing brings you into Mauritania at Nouadhibou - a strange town, servicing the rail link and port essential to the export of the country's phosphate reserves.

Mauritania is an Islamic republic and thus prohibits the import of alcohol, so it is wise to consume or dispose of this prior to entry. Furthermore, overland travel has only recently arrived on Mauritania's doorstep - so it is as well to tread lightly and savour the rather timid reception you may receive, though generally local people are very friendly and helpful.

Entry formalities are slow, and you must obtain a 'Laissez Passe' (permit) to travel south to Nouakchott. For the more adventurous, and with the assistance of a local guide and plenty of sand-matting, try the route due south. You then have to catch the low tide in order to drive the last 150 kilometres along the beach into Nouakchott. A bitumen road takes you east to Nema before joining some rough tracks south into Mali and on to Bamako.

Borders with Mauritania and Senegal are open, so a route encompassing most of West Africa can be considered - but check for the rainy season, when many routes are impassable.

If time permits, Mali presents a wealth of culture, history and tradition, much of which is found around Mopti and Djenne in the lands of the Songhai and even up to Timbucktu (weather permitting). A little to the east is the Bandiagara Escarpment, the home of the Dogon people, with their traditional lifestyle in evidence. South from here you cross into Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta), through Ouagadougou and on to Niger. Niamey, the capital, offers little of interest but does provide the opportunity to obtain several visas before heading off to Nigeria. The popular route now is to Kano in northern Nigeria, offering time out to service vehicles and restock for Central Africa and the Congo. Then head on into northern Cameroon and the spectacular route through the Kapsiki Mountains.

The alternative is to head south from Ougadougou to the Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin and southern Nigeria. This route provides more varied insights into West Africa but will obviously add a considerable amount of time to your journey. From Nigeria you enter Cameroon by the southern route, visiting Douala and the capital Yaounde en route for the Central African Republic. While visas are readily available to enter Gabon and the Republic of Congo, any route further south appears doubtful. Angola has reverted to a state of unrest and civil war and former Zaïre, now the Democratic Republic of Congo, is still highly volatile.

Back on the traditional overland trail, you enter the Central African Republic via Bouar to reach Bangui, the sleepy but shifty colonial capital renowned for its French pâtisseries. Make the most of them: you won't find too many in the Congo.

Democratic Republic of Congo to East Africa

The route east through the Central Africa Republic to southern Sudan, Juba, and on south to Kenya, has effectively been out of bounds for many years now. The continuing conflict with the North shows no real signs of abating, causing much suffering to the Dinka and Nuer peoples who roam these lands.

So far, and for the foreseeable future, the only route open to East Africa is through the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) which, after struggling under President Mobutu for over 30 years now has a new and unstable regime led by Laurent Kabila. At the time of going to press, travel in the DRC is not recommended, but this situation is not necessarily long-term and this is still the best route through to East Africa. Corruption is rife, fuel and food shortages are common, and the 'roads' deteriorate by the year. Anyone considering this route is advised to go prepared, with a vehicle in sound condition (very little in the way of spares or assistance is available on the way). Reserve food and fuel supplies are a must.

There are presently two entry points into DRC from Central Africa, both involving a ferry crossing of the rivers that form the frontiers. Entering at Zongo (across the river from Bangui) will take you south-east via Gemena to Lisala and the Zaïre River. Here you may be able to board a barge or one of the river ferries travelling upstream to Kisangani (Stanleyville during the colonial days of the Belgian Congo). The overland route follows the north bank of the river via Bumba and Buta and then south to Kisangani.

Either way progress is slow. The ferries and barges constantly run aground on shifting sand bars, whereas the road will inevitably be the worse for wear especially during and after the long rainy season (July to November).

The other alternative is to travel further east in the Central African Republic, viewing the awesome Kembe Falls en route to Bangassou. Having crossed the Mbomou river you join a 'secondary road' (more like a track) south to Bondo then to Buta; makeshift bridges on this route are very suspect and should always be checked.

Into eastern DRC via the Ituri Forests and the home of various pygmy peoples, you arrive at a point where the best option is to cross into Uganda; alternatively, you can travel further south through the Virunga National Park and enter Rwanda, but this is not recommended. Previously the route south from Komanda to the Virunga National Park and Rwanda was the popular one, but the state of civil war and the Rwandan refugee crisis have left this region in a state of constant disruption, and it is therefore best avoided. The Mountain Gorilla projects in DRC are temporarily suspended, so it is best to seek these out in Uganda or possibly Rwanda (entering from southern Uganda).

Leaving DRC and entering directly into Uganda, a route taking you through Murchison Falls National Park, you will be well rewarded. Here you are at the meeting points of the Victoria and Albert Niles, as they form the mighty White Nile at the start of its long slow journey to the Mediterranean. Uganda, once the 'Jewel of Africa', has endured a long road to recovery following the horrific periods of rule by Amin and Abote, which left this friendliest of countries in rack and ruin. Uganda's people offer you wonderful hospitality: definitely include it on your route.

From Kampala there are several choices of route. Either head directly into Kenya and through the rift valley and its lakes of Baringo, Naivasha and Nakuru to Nairobi. Or take the southerly route round Lake Victoria directly into Tanzania and on to Mwanza. By doing this you can then visit the game-filled plains of the Serengeti, discover the Olduvai Gorge and climb to the rim of the Ngorongoro Crater. This natural haven for wildlife can be visited by driving down in a Land Rover, chartered locally at the park's wildlife headquarters.

From here you descend into Tanzania's rift valley, via Lake Manyara and the Masai tribelands to Arusha, at the foot of Mount Meru. It is well worth exploring the game reserves of Kenya, the Indian Ocean coast from Lamu to Malindi and the old Arab trading port of Mombasa. Then head south via the slopes of Kilimanjaro, Africa's highest peak. With the support of local guides and porters, you can make a non-technical climb to its snow-capped summit at 19,000 feet.

A completely different route to East Africa for the adventurous would be to go from Niger into Chad, crossing the southern Sahara to enter the Sudan at El Geneima, then head for Khartoum. But you need to choose your season and really research the route and local formalities beforehand - Chad does go through periodic political upheavals and it is not always easy to find reliable, up-to- date information for this region. Several overland companies as well as some independent travellers have taken this route during 1999 and 2000. Travel in northern Sudan is slow but generally straightforward, and you are required to check in with local authorities at every centre. From Khartoum you need to head directly south-east to Ethiopia via Wad Medani, over a very seasonal road. The more viable route via Kassala to Eritrea is out of the question at present, owing to the recent border conflict with Ethiopia. From Ethiopia this route takes you into northern Kenya: again check beforehand on the current situation, as there can often be bandit movements (of Somali origin) in this area. Always join the daily police escorts from Moyale to Marsabit and on to Isilio.

The Rift Valley to the Cape

It seems an age since the days of apartheid in South Africa when travel to neighbouring countries was very restricted. Now travel in the south has been transformed, with the whole of the Nairobi to Cape route becoming a relative highway. Gone are the days of questioning border controls, intent on stalling your progress south through Tanzania, Zambia and Botswana, knowing full well that your destination was ultimately South Africa. Now very few visas are even required to travel through this section and the only real challenge is deciding on your route and preferences. It is easy to stick to the popular main route, but by adopting a more adventurous approach you can still get off the beaten track.

The popular route is south via Dar es Salaam, taking time out to visit the exotic spice island of Zanzibar, where life is dramatically different from on the mainland. By joining the 'Tanzam Highway', you then enter the eastern fork of the Great Rift Valley, which leads you down into Malawi and the characteristic fishing villages dotted along the shores of its beautiful lake. After visiting Lilongwe, Malawi's peaceful capital, you enter Zambia. Your choice is then either to head south via Lake Kariba into Zimbabwe and Harare, or to head for Livingstone and the thundering Victoria Falls on the frontier of Zimbabwe and Zambia. Here activities include white-water rafting, bird's eye flights over the falls and - would you believe - bungy jumping off the bridge joining the frontiers.

There are many different routes from here to the Cape, but most now prefer to cross Botswana, including an excursion into the waterways of the Okavango Basin. The 'islands' of the delta are a haven for wildlife and birds. Carry on through the Caprivi Strip into Namibia, the unique Etosha Pans and the vast mountainous sand dunes that fall dramatically into the Atlantic. The rugged shoreline is littered with skeletons of the shipwrecks for which the coastline is notorious. Sea life havens can be visited as you travel south via Walvis Bay and Luderitz. The Fish River Canyon is a must before leaving Namibia to cross the Orange River into South Africa. Several days' drive brings you to the end of an incredible journey - and Cape Town, overlooked by its distinctive Table Mountain, is an ideal place to end.

An alternative and rewarding route from Harare takes you through the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe into Mozambique, following its wonderful Indian Ocean coastline to Maputo and then into South Africa. From here you can go south to Durban, the Drakensbergs, Lesotho and the garden route to the Cape.

The alternative Cairo to Nairobi route

Regrettably, with southern Sudan still a 'no go' zone, the route directly south from Egypt up the Nile to Khartoum, Kosti, Juba and into Kenya is still not possible. The little-used route from Wad Madeni to the gorges of the Blue Nile into Ethiopia and Lake Tana is seasonally passable, but the borders between Sudan and Ethiopia are periodically closed.

The most practical route from Khartoum used to be to travel via Kassala into Eritrea to Asmara, the capital, then south to Ethiopia, following the dramatic highlands route to Addis Ababa. But the last two years have seen these two neighbours in periodic conflict over their borders, which recently led to an all-out invasion and declared victory by Ethiopia. So the journey via Eritrea is really out of the question for some time. From Addis Ababa, perched on the 'wall' of the Great Rift Valley, there is a viable route south through the lakes and desert lands bordering on Kenya. This is harsh country that experiences extreme temperatures, but it is at least part of an overland route that was not generally possible for some twenty years between the mid-Seventies and mid-Nineties.